1

Read articles from the Polish, German and Spanish magazines. Consider how each of the authors shows the role of the German Empire in the First World War.

Methodological remarks: the task can be carried out individually or in groups of two.

Solution to the task: The German role in the outbreak of war is discussed very briefly in the Polish article. The author mentions only briefly that although Germany was the first to begin military action, they felt compelled to war by the Triple Entente countries which were trying to encircle the German Empire by diplomatic means (p. 32). In the Spanish article, the greatest responsibility for the outbreak of the war is attributed to Germany, although it is noted that the conflict on a global scale also resulted from many years of growing international social and ethnic tensions. (“It is clear that the direct responsibility for the outbreak of war lies in Germany. However, Germany cannot be assigned the full responsibility.”) The author of the German article does not agree to put the blame for the outbreak of the war solely to Germany, although he does not completely relieve the German politicians from the responsibility for the outbreak. This text indicates that the escalation of global conflict in July 1914 was caused by a complex coincidence of circumstances and the responsibility for this is distributed more or less equally among governments of all countries involved in the conflict. (“After its [the war] ending Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles claimed Germany the sole responsibility for the tragedy of 1914. This accusation was unjust. Taking into account the events that led to the First World War, the liability actually is distributed evenly, and the direct culprits were Vienna and Berlin.”)

a. What is the source of differences in the presentation of the same problem in the three analyzed texts (Polish, German and Spanish)?

Methodological remarks: the task can be carried out individually or in groups of two. However, the results and conclusions should be discussed in front of the class/group.

Solution to the task: the differences in presenting the same issue (responsibility for the outbreak of the First World War) result from different points of view presented by authors of respective countries. Poland joined the war not as an independent state, but occupied among others by Germany which could cause critical attitude of Polish historians to German politics of the period. By contrast, the author of the German article tries to defend the decision taken by the authorities of the German Empire in 1914. From the German point of view attributing the entire responsibility for the outbreak of the war only to their country is unjust and unfair. Spain remained neutral during the First World War which may suggest that the Spanish author would keep objectivity in assessing the reasons for the outbreak of the war. In his article, he repeated the common opinion about Germany's responsibility for the escalation of the conflict, noticing, however, also other complex reasons for the outbreak of the war.

2

How do the considered German and Spanish articles show the public moods of the European societies on the eve of the outbreak of the war? How does this approach differ from the picture sketched in the Polish article?

Methodological remarks: the task can be carried out in small groups of two or more. A group receives the task of analysing the German or Spanish article and then exchange their observations at the class forum.

Solution to the task: the Spanish article mentions reluctant attitude of European societies towards the war. However, the existence of groups of people that pressed on the war is pointed out. The groups saw it as an opportunity to accomplish nationalist goals and a form of strengthening national unity. (“Generally speaking, the Europeans did not like wars. (..) However, governments and military leaders had opposing views and negotiations have closed all the paths that might have led to peace. Naturally, the leaders were counting on the support of certain social groups for which the inevitable war was considered an outlet for tension and a form of a healthy national crusade against the enemy as hated as barely known.”)
The German article says that the outbreak of the war constituted a large surprise for the European citizens. Most of them were against the war. In Germany and France, anti-war demonstrations were organized. They could not, however, prevent the beginning of hostilities which had already been decided by the governments and military authorities. (“At 6 pm on 23 July, Serbia was given an ultimatum. For the public it was as shocking as a bolt from the blue. In that hot summer many Europeans were in holiday moods.(..) Mass demonstrations against the war were organized in France and Germany. But the decisions had been made behind closed doors by monarchs, politicians, diplomats and military authorities.”)
The Polish article presents mainly enthusiasm for the beginning of the war in the societies of various European countries. It is noted, however, that there were also social groups (e.g. workers and peasants, socialists) who spoke against this armed conflict.

3

How do the Polish and Spanish articles show the attitude of the nations without their own state to the war?

Methodological remarks: the task can be carried out in small groups of two.

Solution to the task: The Polish article emphasizes that the Poles greeted the outbreak of the war with delight. They considered the war mainly as a chance of regaining the independence. The Spanish article more extensively discusses the attitude towards the war demonstrated by the nations without their own state (such as the Poles, the Irish and the Czechs). The development of national consciousness among these nations is indicated by the author of the article as one of the factors that have contributed to the escalation of pro-war moods before 1914. These nations were among the group that greeted the war with enthusiasm.

4

Have a look at the beer advertisement from the Polish article and the caricature of King George V in the Spanish magazine. What are the functions of the humour and jokes on the subject of the war in these two figures?

Methodological remarks: the task can be carried out in small groups of two or more.
Solution to the task: In the Hungarian beer advertisement, the humour related to life at the battlefront (the theme of Triple Entente troops surrendering en masse to Triple Alliance soldiers drinking beer) is used for marketing purposes. The reference to the heroic soldiers’ attitude at the battlefront and the advantage over the enemies caused by drinking the Hungarian beer supposed to persuade customers to buy the product. By contrast, the caricature from the Spanish magazine is used for propaganda purposes. It metaphorically depicts the conflict between Great Britain and Germany – the two countries competing for supremacy on the seas and oceans.
So, humour and jokes referring to a war can serve different purposes:

- Improving the morale of the society and building a spirit of patriotism;
- Discrediting the opponent by ridiculing their features or moves, also in the international arena;
- Promoting (advertising) policies and decisions of the authority among the broad masses of society
- Inducing people to certain behaviours (in this case it is purchase of a certain brand of beer);
- Conducting psychological battle with the enemy, weakening their fighting spirit and faith in victory.

a. Discuss in the group the following problem: how are the values associated with the military promoted today? What are the actions governments take to get public support for the military participation in international armed conflicts (such as intervention in Iraq or Afghanistan)?

Methodological remarks: the task can be carried out as group/class discussion moderated by the teacher.
Solution to the task: Students may cite various examples that they know from their own experience, media coverage, watched movies or read books.
Examples of arguments that can be used in the discussion:

- Organisation of pompous parades and military reviews (e.g. the annual parade in Poland on 15th August);
- Solemn celebration of anniversaries connected with armed deeds (uprisings, wars, etc.);
- Production of television advertisements that encourage people to join the army;
- Promoting the role model of a soldier saving his or her country in popular culture (a very common motif in American movies).