National Approach
National Approach
Poland’s Perspective
The outbreak of the First World War was a result of the increasing conflicts escalating primarily in Europe in the late nineteenth century. Aspects such as gradually expanding territorial scope of the conflict, joining the war by non-European countries, duration of the warfare, the magnitude of war damages, and finally an unprecedented number of victims made this war an unparalleled event in the history of mankind. The outcome of the First World War changed the face of societies, not only in the countries involved in the conflict, causing huge transformations in philosophical, moral, economic, and political dimensions. What is important, understanding the consequences of First World War, both in terms of geo-political repercussions and impact on the way of thinking and attitudes of the post-war societies in Europe is a necessary condition for understanding the origins and causes of the outbreak of another global conflict in 1939.
Poland belonged
to the group of European countries that in 1914 did not function as an
independent body politic. This group of countries gained or regained
their sovereignty only as a result of the First World War, more
precisely the peace treaties that ended it. At the end of the
eighteenth century, three neighbour countries – Russia, Austria and
Prussia – took advantage of the Poland’s political, economic and social
weakness. These three countries came to an agreement under which they
divided the Polish territory between them; took it over by force;
joined (annexed) it to their own countries; and throughout the next
century, together suppressed all Polish uprisings for national
independence. The division of Poland between the three invaders meant
that at the outbreak of the First World War, the Poles found themselves
on both sides of the conflict. At the battlefront, the Polish soldiers
fought in the ranks of three foreign armies: Prussian, Austro-Hungarian
and Russian. These facts induced in Poles a specific perception of
events taking place between 1914 and 1918, and as a consequence
influenced the way the First World War is considered in Polish books
and school textbooks.
From the
Poland’s point of view, the First World War was, most of all, a
long-awaited conflict between the occupants: Russia, Austria and
Prussia. These countries, for over one hundred years, worked together
in order to eradicate Polish culture, language and national identity.
In 1914, the first time since the ratification of the partition
treaties, it happened that the occupants found themselves at war. For
Poles, it was a unique opportunity to gain political freedom and
perhaps even the independence for the territory of the former Polish
state, provided of course that they would support the right (i.e.
winning) side of the conflict. Hence, enthusiasm of Polish people,
regardless of the nationality they represented at the time, was the
common reaction to the outbreak of the war in 1914. However, this
enthusiasm was mixed with fear and grief caused by the fact that
members of the same nation, and sometimes of the same family, had to
act against one another in the ranks of foreign armies that were on
opposite sides of the battlefront.
The result of
the First World War was extremely favourable to Poland. Two Poland’s
occupants – i.e. Austria-Hungary and the German Empire were among the
defeated countries. In 1918, the third of the invaders – Russia,
despite participation during the war in the winning camp of The Entente
Powers, was in political chaos due to the Bolshevik Revolution. In the
eyes of the previous allies, especially Britain and France, the
Bolshevik government was perceived more as a potential threat, rather
than a partner whose interests should be taken into account during the
peace treaties. Thanks to such a coincidence of circumstances supported
by great military and political effort of the Polish society during the
war, it was possible to rebuild an independent Polish state in 1918.
This does not mean that the Polish history textbooks and historical publications ignore completely the international aspect of the subject of the Great War. On the contrary, the juncture of the processes taking place in the international arena that led to the escalation of the conflict is recognized and widely analyzed. Also during classes, the formation of the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance is discussed including the sequence of events which was a source of political tension in international relations in Europe over several years preceding the assassination in Sarajevo. However, in the context of the course of the war and its consequences, the focus moves to the events that took place mainly in Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia. A special attention is paid to the efforts of the Poles on their way to independence. Only the most important events from the Poland’s perspective are situated in the broad context of the international warfare and the political actions in which (apart from the Poland’s occupants) a large part of the world participated.
The Polish Material
The discussed text comes from the popular historical magazine oriented primarily to young people entitled ‘Mówią wieki’ (Centuries speak). The article by Piotr Szlanty „Święto wojny. Społeczeństwa Europy wobec wybuchu pierwszej wojny światowej” (“Feast of the War. European Societies in the Presence of the Outbreak of the First World War”) concentrates on the topics of social reaction to the events that took place in the summer of 1914 and led to the outbreak of the international conflict.
Tasks
|
1 |
Read the article “Feast of the War. European Societies Towards the Outbreak of the First World War” („Święto wojny. Społeczeństwa Europy wobec wybuchu pierwszej wojny światowej”) from the “Centuries Speak“ (“Mówią wieki”) magazine. What is the article about? With your own words, try to explain the meaning of the title "Feast of the War". |
|
2 |
List the international events mentioned in the article that preceded the outbreak of the First World War. Which of them were the direct causes of the outbreak of warfare in 1914? |
|
3 |
How did people at the time imagine the course of the conflict before the outbreak of the war in 1914? a. Discuss in the group/class the following issue: what did the contemporary base their ideas about the course of the war on? |
|
4 |
What are the values that the war should have brought to the European societies according to the intellectuals, philosophers, and politicians of that time? |
| 5 | Which social groups showed the greatest enthusiasm for the war? Which social groups approached the outbreak of war with scepticism? Discuss in groups possible sources of different points of view. |
| 6 |
Taking into account information from the article, analyze the attitude of the Polish society living under occupation to the war. Discuss with your classmate possible reasons of such attitude. a. What side did Poles support in the European conflict? b. How and why the outbreak of the war changed the attitude of Poles towards the occupying countries? |
| 7 | What led to the collapse of the optimistic and patriotic atmosphere in the European societies over the following months of the war? |
| 8 | Discuss as a group/class your opinions on the legitimacy and practicability of the European societies’ attitudes before the outbreak of the First World War. What are the consequences for societies, even today, associated with the war? |
Methodological remarks: the article is a popular historical one. The author is a professional historian, an employee of the University of Warsaw and a researcher specializing in the history of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The text is written using simple and accessible language, so it can be used by students aged between 13 and 19. In Polish educational system, this corresponds to the second and third level of education. According to the Polish history core curriculum, the subject matter of the article corresponds to the issues covered in the final year of the third stage of education and the extended topic range of teaching history in the fourth stage of education.
Tasks
|
1 |
Read the article “Feast
of the War. European Societies Towards the Outbreak of the First World
War” („Święto wojny. Społeczeństwa Europy wobec wybuchu pierwszej wojny
światowej”) from the “Centuries Speak“ (“Mówią wieki”) magazine.
What is the article about? With your own words, try to explain the
meaning of the title "Feast of the War".
Methodological remarks: the task can be carried out individually or in groups of two. The task can be followed by a discussion with the group/class on contemporary perception of armed conflicts. The teacher may ask students about their views on the legitimacy and effectiveness of resolving international conflicts through military action using examples of the wars taking place today – such as the war in Iraq, in Afghanistan, the conflict in Syria, etc. The discussion should focus on aspects such as the reaction of contemporary societies to such events, the arguments used in the public discourse by supporters and opponents of using power play in international relations. Solution to the task: The article deals with the reaction of the European societies to the outbreak of the war in July 1914. It describes the moods of the public in the European countries that joined the war and the ideas of the people of that time on the likely course and duration of the warfare. The author of the article also presents the hopes of the various nations and social groups associated with the outbreak of the war, as well as the problems that were supposed to be solved by the escalation of the international conflict. The title “Feast of the War” refers to the atmosphere of joy, enthusiasm, and optimism that dominated among the European societies in anticipation of the coming war. Events associated with joining the war by successive countries such as mobilization and formation of troops were treated then as a festival of national unity, patriotism and heroism. Therefore, preparations for military action in almost all the countries participating in the war resembled the kind of celebration. |
|
2 |
List the international events mentioned in the article that preceded the outbreak of the First World War. Which of them were the direct causes of the outbreak of warfare in 1914?
Methodological remarks:
the task can be carried out individually or in groups of two. The
political events preceding the outbreak of the war are mentioned
episodically in the article. For instance, the author does not mention
the assassination in Sarajevo which constituted the immediate cause of
the war. For a proper understanding of the origins of the conflict by
the students the teacher can encourage them to compare the information
contained in the article with the textbook. The additional information
from the textbook can be used to solve the stated problem.
Solution to the task: the article mentions the following events that preceded the outbreak of war in the summer of 1914: - the ultimatum given by Austria-Hungary to Serbia (p. 32);In light of the article, the immediate cause of the war was the ultimatum given by Austria-Hungary to Serbia. The teacher should explain to students the idea of domino effect associated with the complex system of European alliances that after the rejection of the ultimatum by Serbia and declaring the war by Austria-Hungary led to escalation of the conflict at the world scale in just a few days. |
|
3 |
How did people at the time imagine the course of the conflict before the outbreak of the war in 1914?
Methodological remarks: the task can be carried out individually or in groups of three or four students.
Solution to the task: both
the military leaders and ordinary citizens expected that the war would
only last for a few months and would be limited to several major
battles. It was imagined that the fighting will be based on quick,
direct strikes at the enemy forces. It was not expected to be a long
positional warfare fought off mostly in trenches. Multi-million losses
in troops and civilians were not taken into account either (p. 33). a. Discuss in the group/class the following issue: what did the contemporary base their ideas about the course of the war on? Solution to the task: the commanders of that time based their judgment on the experiences learned from previous wars that had usually been brief and based on direct military clashes. The conclusions arising from the course of the Civil War and the Russo-Japanese War were not taken into account (p. 33). The people then were unable to picture conflict of such a scale as the First or Second World War. They did not know yet the consequences of the use of weapons of mass destruction. In the history of world, wars had been the normal means of pursuing international politics, therefore armed conflicts did not raise the fear among the public as it happens in the present times (p. 33). |
|
4 |
What are the values that the war should have brought to the European societies according to the intellectuals, philosophers, and politicians of that time?
Methodological remarks: the task can be carried out individually or in groups of two. Solution to the task: According to the intellectuals, philosophers and politicians of that time, the war was to bring the societies primarily the unification. The war was supposed to strengthen the sense of unity and national community in societies (p. 34). Some philosophical trends such as Social Darwinism (discussed on page 34) found the phenomenon of long-term peace harmful. According to the supporters of such a view, a war purifies the relationship between states and promotes positive values such as “self-sacrifice, devotion, discipline, courage, brotherhood or fidelity that tear people out from the shackles of selfishness and consumerism” (p. 34). From this point of view, a war is a form of natural selection which allows only the most valuable, the most powerful states and individuals to survive and eliminates the weak units (pp. 34-35). |
|
5 |
Which social groups showed the greatest enthusiasm for the war? Which social groups approached the outbreak of war with scepticism? Discuss in groups possible sources of different points of view.
Methodological remarks:
the task can be carried out by dividing the class into small groups of
students and assigning every group a different topic: 1. Social groups
inclined enthusiastically towards the war and their arguments; 2.
Social groups that were sceptical to the war and their arguments.
Individual groups should discuss the results of their work in front of
the class. In the extended version of the task, representatives of both
groups may have a discussion moderated by the teacher which is aimed at
convincing the opponents to their own reasons and arguments. The war was enthusiastically supported by young people. It was an opportunity for them to experience the adventure, get out from the control of their parents, learn about new countries and win fame. The outbreak of the war pleased also the intellectuals who saw in this event a chance of moral renewal of the society and an opportunity to strengthen the sense of national community. The war was also supported by the minorities (religious, ethnic) which saw in it the opportunity to prove their patriotism (pp. 34-35).
2) Social groups with sceptical attitude towards the war and their arguments. The workers and peasants were not pleased about the outbreak of the war. It was them who had to face the greatest poverty every day and the war only put additional burden on their shoulders. Also the socialists spoke out against the war according to their policies. Internationalism and anti-militarism had long been important elements of their political programmes (p. 35). Socialist and social democratic parties gathered poorer strata of societies (mostly workers), so their programmes were aligned on this issue with the views of these social groups. The only reason for the Social Democrats to support the war was the hope for a greater democratization of the political system (providing workers and peasants with extensive political and civil rights) (pp. 35-36). |
| 6 |
Taking into account information from the article, analyze the attitude of the Polish society living under occupation to the war. Discuss with your classmate possible reasons of such attitude.
Methodological remarks: the task can be carried out in groups of two. Solution to the task: The Poles living in all three annexed territories vigorously supported the participation in the war and enthusiastically joined the armed forces of the occupant countries. This mood of the public resulted from the hope of regaining independence as a consequence of the armed conflict between the invaders (p. 36). a. What side did Poles support in the European conflict? Solution to the task: The Poles living under Russian rule in the puppet state Congress Poland declared themselves for the Russian side. The Poles from the Prussian annexation took the German side, and those of the Austrian annexation fought for the Austro-Hungarian Empire (p. 36). b. How and why the outbreak of the war changed the attitude of Poles towards the occupying countries? Solution to the task: Before the war, Poles had treated the occupying countries and their citizens with hostility and ostracism. The outbreak of war and arising hope of regaining independence by fighting alongside the invaders resulted in a change of this attitude. Poles openly demonstrated unity and brotherhood especially with soldiers of the occupant armies: the soldiers were introduced to the society, Polish women openly married Russians in Orthodox churches, and Poles from all the annexations were voluntarily joining the occupant armies (p. 36). This situation resulted from the belief that faithful service in the occupant army showing commitment and dedication would be rewarded with rebuilding the independent Polish state after the war. |
| 7 |
What led to the collapse of the optimistic and patriotic atmosphere in the European societies over the following months of the war?
Methodological remarks: the
task can be carried out individually or in groups of two. The task may
be used as a pretext for the teacher to start a discussion about the
further course and characteristics of military actions during the war
in comparison to the ideas of the people in the summer of 1914. Solution to the task: The public mood in the countries that was taking part in the war collapsed with the information from the battlefront about losses and wounded soldiers returning home (p. 36). Effects and course of the warfare turned out to be completely different from the image that people had at the time of the war outbreak. |
| 8 |
Discuss as a group/class your opinions on the legitimacy and practicability of the European societies’ attitudes before the outbreak of the First World War. What are the consequences for societies, even today, associated with the war?
Methodological remarks:
the task may take the form of discussion in a group/class. The teacher
can encourage students to use their own knowledge of the consequences
of armed conflicts in the discussion. Solution to the task: The public moods of the societies in the countries joining the First World War were unjustified and unrealistic. The people at that time did not take into account that the development of armament, including weapons of mass destruction (like poison gases), would not only prolonge the warfare, but it would make it much more bloody than any conflicts known before. At the same time the consequences of the war usually affect the civilian population in the most painful way. Civilians suffer the losses not only as a result of direct military action, but also as a consequence of famine, epidemics, mass migrations, etc. Such phenomena are also observed in the case of contemporary conflicts. For instance, one can give examples of societies suffering from armed conflicts in the Middle East and Africa. |
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